P Interval (Ventricular Diastole)

• Atria and ventricles are relaxed
• blood is flowing into the atria from the veins. 
• Atrial pressure increases above that of the ventricle, AV valves open allowing blood to flow into the ventricle

P Wave (Atrial Systole) P-Q

• SA node fires 
• Atria contract causing atrial systole 
• which forces all blood into the ventricles
• emptying the atria.

Q Interval (End of Ventricular Diastole)

• AV valves remain open - all remaining blood squeezed into the ventricles. 
• impulse from the SA node reaches the AV node 
• which spreads the signal throughout the walls of the ventricles via bundles of His and Purkinje fibres
• R peak is the end of ventricular diastole and the start of systole.

R Interval (Ventricular Systole)

• All blood is now within the ventricles
• so pressure is higher than in the atria - AV valves close
• ventricles start to contract although pressure is not yet high enough to open the SL (semilunar) valves

ST Segment (Ventricular Systole)

• Pressure increases until it equals Aortic pressure,
• SL valves open
• blood is ejected into the Aorta (and pulmonary artery) as ventricles contract
• At this time the atria are in diastole and filling with blood returning from the veins.
• plateau in ventricular arterial pressure

T Wave (Ventricular Diastole)

• Ventricles relax
• ventricular pressure is once again less than the aortic pressure 
• so SL valves close

• Situated in the inner mitochondrial matrix
• produces most eukaryotic ATP
• a chain of proteins that move electrons from higher to lower energy levels
• electrons are provided by FADH2 or NADH
• terminal electron acceptor is oxygen
• as electrons move to from high to lower energy levels, the energy is used to pump H+ against its concentration gradient out into the intermembrane space
• this established concentration gradient drives the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
• oxidative phosphorylation

• due to the relative electron affinities of the proteins
• this tendency is known as redox potential

• moving sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane is an active transport process 
• involving the hydrolysis of ATP to provide the necessary energy. 
• enzyme = Na+/K+-ATPase. 
• process is responsible for maintaining the large excess of Na+ outside the cell and the large excess of K+ inside. 
• sodium-potassium pump is an important contributer to action potential produced by nerve cells. 
• (P-type ion pump –> ATP interactions phosphorylates the transport protein and causes a change in its conformation)

• The pump, after binding ATP, binds 3 intracellular Na+ ions.
• ATP is hydrolyzed, leading to phosphorylation of the pump + release of ADP.
• change in the pump exposes the Na+ ions to the outside. The phosphorylated form of the pump has a low affinity for Na+ ions, so they are released.
• The pump binds 2 extracellular K+ ions. This causes the dephosphorylation of the pump, reverting it to its previous conformational state, transporting the K+ ions into the cell.
• The unphosphorylated form of the pump has a higher affinity for Na+ ions than K+ ions, so the two bound K+ ions are released. ATP binds, and the process starts again.

• 165 Romanian orphans who suffered impact of institutionalization studied
• 111 adopted before 2
• 54 more adopted before 4
• Progress tested at 4, 6, 11 and 15: physical, cognitive & social development
• Qualitative data also collected from parents and teachers
• Progress compared to 52 British children adopted before 6 months
• Romanian orphans lagged behind British children in all 3 areas at point of adoption
• All weighed less and were deemed “mentally retarded”
• Some Romanian orphans adopted by 6 months had caught up with British children by 4
• Those adopted after 6 months formed ad attachments and couldn’t cope with normal peer relationships
• Long term consequences are less severe if children are given an opportunity to develop an attachment
• If no opportunity is given, the consequences are severe

• Longitudinal study, 36 orphans in Canada, measure physical growth and health
• Orphans were smaller than control group at 4.5 but catch up by 10.5
• Impacts on physical developments of orphans are reversible

• Compared Romanian children that hadn’t been institutionalized and those that had for over 90% of their lives (136 children)
• 12-31 moths old
• Those who had been institutionalised displayed disinhibited attachments

• Children are physically smaller
• Gardner: a lack of emotional care leads to “deprivation dwarfism”

• Impacts on cognitive development

• Children cannot distinguish between people chosen as attachment figures
• Treat strangers too friendly, be attention seeking

• Harlow: monkeys with no parents become inadequate parents
• Quinton et al: demonstrated by a study of 50 women in institution
• Women who had been institutionalized fount extreme difficulties in parenting in 20s

• Individual differences: some children will not be as effected by institutionalization
• Rutter: some children receive more attention due to their individual characteristics, such as smiling more, so they are able to form early attachments
• Bowlby’s research changed how children were treated in hospitals, as the importance of early attachments is highlighted
• Previously, women who were putting children up for adoption were encouraged to nurse children for a period of time first, but the sensitive period for forming attachments may have then passed
• Now, babies are adopted within a week of birth, and have attachments just as strong with their adoptive mother
• Usually fostered for a number of years first
• Longitudinal studies follow children over a number of years
• Time consuming
• increases validity
• Shows changes over time
• Deprivation is only one part of the story:
• Romanian orphans also live in appalling physical conditions which impacts on health, and receive no cognitive stimulation
• Damage only occurs when there are multiple risk factors, such as poor infancy+poor subsequent care: poverty or parental disharmony
• Institutionalization may be slow development:
• at 11, less children have disinhibited attachments
• Ex-institutionalised children need more time to mature and learn how to cope with things, so the effects of institutionlaisation are reversible, given time
• Supported by work of LeMare and Audet

• Explicit memory: knowing that, declarative, takes conscious effort to remember
• Specific details: Personal experiences, specific details, time, place, who : first day at school
• Context: what happened just before and just after: why
• Associated emotions felt at the time

• Explicit memory: knowing that, declarative, takes conscious effort to remember
• Shared knowledge: places, maths, well known facts
• Things: functions of objects
• Abstract concepts: maths, languages
• Begin as episodic: acquired through experience, but then there is a transition where associations are lost and knowledge becomes general
• Sometimes, we can still have a strong recollection of when and where we came to learn something

• Implicit memory: we just know how, don’t need to consciously try to remember
• Skills, knowing how to do things such as ride a bike, tie a lace
• Acquired through repetition and practice
• Giving too much attention to how to do things, such as walking, can make it harder as we interfere with the automatic procedural knowledge we have
• Allows us to focus on other tasks at the same time: walk and talk

• Brain scans show different parts of the brain being active for different types of memory
• Episodic memory associated with hippocampus
• Semantic memory associated with temporal lobe
• Procedural memory associated with cerebellum
• Distinguishing episodic and semantic memories:
• Are episodic memories a gateway to semantic memories, or can semantic memories be formed on their own? Use alzheimers patients
• Hodges and Patterson: some alzheimers patients can form episodic and not semantic : single dissociation- separation between two abilities
• Irish et al support this, in double dissociation, when alzheimers patients can form semantic but not episodic memories
• Therefore, episodic memories can be a gateway to semantic memories, but they can also form separately
• Distinguishing procedural and declarative:
• HM, epileptic, hippocampus removed
• Can form procedural memories only
• Could remember how to draw a figure by looking at it (mirror drawing) , but couldn’t remember learning it.
• Evidence from patients with brain damage
• Can’t be exactly sure of affected areas until after death, but most studies are on living patients
• Damage to an area may not directly cause a behaviour change, this part could be a relay station which will still impair performance
• Priming and fourth kind of LTM:
• Priming: how implicit memories impact responses to stimulus
• Controlled by different part of temporal system that explicit memory
• So, Perceptual- representation system mempry must also exist, related to priming
• Spiers: studies 147 amnesia patients, all had intact procedural and PRS memories, not other memories
• Therefore, there are two types of implicit memory that amnesia does not affect.